CESI Conference January 2002 St.Patrick's College

Abstract
This paper explores how children’s collaborative writing compares with that produced when children write as individuals. It examines the impact of collaboration on the writing process and the effectiveness of the computer as a writing tool. A computer-based approach to the writing process was adopted. The research focused on the writing progress of twenty-seven sixth class boys in an urban school over a six-month period. Because this was a comparative study, a quasi-experimental design within an action research framework was the adopted methodology. This paper reports the findings of the study and concludes with practical recommendations for future practice.

Introduction
Writing is one of the four modes of the system of human communication that we call language. It is language which provides the most flexible means of representing the world, at first by speech and later by writing. As human beings we have a deep need to represent our experience. This explains why early people inscribed their stories on cave walls with pictographs. Children want to write. A three year old will leave his mark on the wall with pen, marker or lipstick. Graves (1983) reminds us “Long before they come to school, youngsters leave their mark on foggy car windows and wet beaches”(cited in Calkins 1986, p. 59). We write to make sense of our world and of our human experiences in it.

Children need to experience the expressive, functional and communicative nature of writing. On the one hand, writing can be seen as an intensely personal medium through which we communicate the facts and the meaning of our experience. On the other hand, cognitive conflict, generated by discussion with a partner, clarifies thought and enhances cognitive development. Some of the educational literature suggests that children develop as writers in interaction with others (e.g. Czerniewska 1985; Bruner 1986). Murray (1990) offers another perspective. He suggests that:

Most of writing is not collaborative, that we write alone to an individual reader who hears our words alone. Those of us who live our lives as writers accept and, if we are honest, secretly delight in solitude, in these hours of the day when we are alone with our developing texts (p.xiii).

The Irish Context
In recent times, the teaching of writing in Irish primary schools has been the subject of considerable scrutiny from a research perspective, with the completion of a number of studies on the teaching of writing in Irish primary schools and from a curriculum point of view with the launch of the revised Primary School Curriculum (NCCA, 1999). While teachers have stated in a survey by Healy-Eames (1999, p. 217) that their aim for writing instruction is the development of ‘effective expression and communication of ideas’, their teaching strategies still focus on secondary skills.

The value of collaborative writing using the computer as a writing tool has been supported by many international studies (Cochran-Smith, 1991; Czerniewska, 1992; Crook, 1994). However, the value of the computer for the individual writer in the Irish Primary School setting has not been investigated. This paper explores the effect of paired writing and the possibilities ICT offers as a writing tool in the development of children’s writing for the individual writer.

The Process of Writing
The Revised Curriculum stresses ‘the importance of the process of writing as well as the product’ (NCCA, 1999, p. 3). This involves the child in writing, editing and redrafting on a wide range of topics, in a variety of genres and for different audiences. Czerniewska (1992, p. 83) describes the process approach as a means to free children ‘from the burdens of skill acquisition and allows them to explore the richness and diversity of written language.’

Key Players
Twenty seven boys from sixth class participated in the study from October 2000 to April 2001. The pupils were new to computer work and only three boys had a reasonable level of computer literacy at the beginning of sixth class. Nine pupils had no computer skills. Peer tutoring played a major role in improving the computer skills of the less able children and keyboard skills were quickly acquired by all. Many of the boys were unenthusiastic about writing but motivation was increased through the use of ICT and the multimedia authoring package Story Maker (1999, SPA).

Methodology
Design and Planning of the Research
Twenty-seven sixth class pupils were divided into nine pairs and nine individuals. The control group was comprised of nine individuals, the experimental group nine pairs. The boys elected to work with a partner or individually. In all cases they chose their own partner except for the last two boys, neither of whom wanted to work together. At teacher’s request, they reluctantly agreed to work as a pair.

Setting
Two computers were set up at the back of the classroom and a time table was drafted to ensure each pair or individual had half an hour writing time at the computer four times per week. One computer was for individual writers, the other was for pairs. Both computers were in use from 9.20 a.m. each morning until 3.00 p.m. A travel clock was placed beside each computer to ensure everybody started and finished at the correct time. Two writing packages were used for the duration of the study, (i) Story Maker and (ii) Microsoft Word. Story Maker was chosen for the first phase of the research because it is a highly motivating package. Creating animated, talking stories was a new and exciting experience for the pupils. Microsoft Word was used for the second three months.

A work schedule was outlined for the period of the study. This involved a variety of topics and genres, a range of audience and emphasis on the process of writing as well as the product. Approximately thirty per cent of the work was teacher-assigned and seventy per cent was pupil chosen.

Writing Activities
Emphasis was placed on writing for a real audience and a real purpose. The pupils were introduced to an expanding range of genres (i.e. narrative, expository, poetry, letters summaries, diaries and reports). They engaged in many different types of written communication during the research: multi-media authoring, poetry, Mother’s Day tributes, letter-writing, advertisements for a local business, personal profiles, book reviews and an anthology of short stories. The following is a description of the various writing activities.

Multimedia Authoring
‘Storymaker’ is a multi-media authoring package. It has a selection of backgrounds and sprites, which are chosen by the children as settings for their stories. The visual stimulus provides a strong motivation for reluctant writers. The pupils browsed through the backgrounds and sprites to decide on a topic and then proceeded to write their books. They were aware that the books would be published, bound and a copy placed in the class library for their peers to read.

Figure 1.1 (below) shows a print screen from Story Maker.

Figure 1.1 Story Maker Print Screen

Poetry:
The pupils wrote limericks, acrostic poetry and elegies. A limerick is a jingle consisting of five lines with rhymes aabba; the first letter of each line of an acrostic poem forms a word which must be read vertically; an elegy is a lament or tribute to the dead.

Mother’s Day Tribute:
Pupils expressed a personal tribute to their mothers in prose or verse.

Letter Writing:
A thank you letter was written to Emma who spent one week in our classroom teaching science to the boys as part of her teacher-training programme. Another letter was written to our resource teacher who was leaving to take up a new post. Our visiting author Cora Harrison sent a copy of her newest publication to sixth class after her workshop with us. Some boys read the book first and then wrote to tell her what they thought of it. Others wrote immediately to thank her for the book. Each letter had a specific purpose and a particular audience.

Advertisements:
Advertisements were designed to promote the services of a local garage, owned by the father of one of the pupils.

Response to Literature:
The Selfish Giant by Oscar Wilde and Under the Hawthorne Tree by Marita Conlon-McKenna were two novels read in class. The pupils were asked to respond to the stories in several ways. Expository writing was the form taken in relation to the Selfish Giant and his character development. Narrative text was undertaken to recount the events and experiences of Under the Hawthorne Tree. The pupils were required to write the last chapter to Conlon-McKenna’s book before the final chapter was read in class.

Personal Profiles:
The boys were asked to write a detailed description of their personal appearance and personality.

Book Reviews:
Book reviews were written about some of the books the pupils read during in class. They were required to review books they felt strongly about, in a positive or negative way. They also participated in a competition organised by the local library to review a book by an Irish author.

Anthology for First Class:
We visited first class to find out what sort of books they liked to read. We explored the idea of appropriate vocabulary. Each individual or pair of writers then elected to write a short story on a topic of their choice for the anthology. When all the stories were printed the anthology was bound and presented to the first class children for their library.

Limitations
Some limitations were encountered during the research. The chief limitation at the beginning of the project was the pupils’ lack of computer skills. None of the pupils were familiar with the software Story Maker and all except three had to learn how to save their work to floppy disks and the hard-drive. Initially, some work was lost but a growing level of competence was gradually acquired.

The second limitation was time for pupil-teacher conference. While the pupils worked on their writing, I attempted to see each pair or individual in conference for a few minutes daily. This was not always possible.

Research Findings
The findings of the study are reported using the following framework:

· Collaborative writing and the child’s cognitive development.

· A computer-based approach to the writing process.

Collaborative Writing and the Child’s Cognitive Development
Five key findings emerged in relation to collaborative writing and the child’s cognitive development.

Finding Number 1.
Pupils choose to write with a partner because of the scaffolding it provides.

Pupils require scaffolding for many different reasons. Some pupils found it helpful to have a partner to keep them on task. Others liked to share and discuss ideas. For some pupils a partner was a resource for clarifying thought. Finally some pupils found the support of a partner helpful with spelling or computer skills.

Finding Number 2.
The scaffolding provided by a partner was found to be unnecessary for the more able partner as the research progressed.

For most children, the urge to communicate their own message gradually becomes stronger than the desire to work in collaboration. Weaker children, who work in pairs however, do not outgrow the benefits of collaboration. They continued to enjoy, and benefit from, the scaffolding provided by a partner.

Finding Number 3.
Collaborative writing works extremely well for non-fictional or non-personal writing, especially where research is required by the pupils.

The findings of this investigation would indicate that collaborative writing has a very real place in the child’s programme of writing activities. It is eminently suited to non-fictional or non-personal writing. It improves the social and cognitive development of the child. Underwood and Underwood (1990, p. 168) argue that when children collaborate “the gains for cognitive development are demonstrable. ” However, it is not appropriate for genres of writing where a personal response is required.

Finding Number 4.
Having a partner limits the pupil’s scope for personal writing.

In the case of personal writing, writers want to express their own ideas and their own personal feelings. Collaborative writing is the antithesis of this because two voices are involved.

Finding Number 5.
Children choose to write on an individual basis because they want to express their own thoughts.

Generally, the pupils who chose to work individually did so because they wanted to write their own stories and use their own ideas. A recurring theme in the data was the strong desire to communicate their own personal message by all the writers, regardless of ability.

Table 4.2 (below) describes the four boys who chose to write on an individual basis.

Table 4.2 Pupils who chose to write individually

The data here suggests that children without siblings, with poor social skills or lack of confidence in their writing ability, are more likely to choose to write as individuals.

A Computer-based Approach to the Writing Process
There are three key findings in relation to a computer-based approach to the writing process.

Finding Number 1.
Ease of redrafting makes the computer an ideal tool for the writing process.

The real power of the word processor for the writer is the flexibility it offers. The use of word processors helps to present text as something to be experimented with, and redrafted as ideas develop. It makes the process of crafting text possible and enables pupils to revisit a text to make appropriate improvements. The purpose of writing is to communicate meaning. A child may not be able to express his thoughts clearly in his first draft. This is where the word processor is invaluable as a writing tool. Most children will not want to rewrite a text with pen and paper. They tend to view it as laborious. This problem is eliminated to a greater extent with the word processor.

Their work can be revisited, changed, expanded or cut to produce an end result the writer is happy with. The potential of the word processor to support the process of redrafting in terms of ideas and content has been widely acknowledged (McFarlane, 1997; Loveless 1995). This view is supported in the Revised Curriculum Guidelines (NCCA, 1999, p. 2).

Finding Number 2.
A computer-based approach motivates pupils to write.

A computer-based approach to the writing process motivates children to write because they enjoy using the computer. It enables them to print professional-looking work which is good for their self-esteem. This is particularly important for reluctant writers or children with special needs. It is also important for the unhappy child in class because writing can be cathartic. Pupils who experienced difficulty with handwriting found the word processor a liberating tool.

Figure 4.5 (below) outlines the number of pupils who enjoyed the process of writing using the computer as a writing tool.

Figure 4.5 Enjoying the process of writing using the computer

Out of twenty-seven pupils, nine enjoyed writing with the computer a lot, twelve enjoyed it somewhat, three did not enjoy the computer as a writing tool and two pupils were unsure.

Finding Number 3.
The flexibility of the word processor is particularly helpful for the weak pupil.

Tremendous growth was evidenced in the attitude of some of the very weak pupils. Gallini and Helman (1993, p. 76) argue: ‘Being able to print work that looks professional is a tremendous boost to reluctant writers’. Weak writers have experienced difficulty and failure. Using the word processor as a writing tool, they can experience a measure of success. The computer allows them to work at their own pace and errors can be easily deleted. Weaker pupils must have a level of competence using the computer before they are able to focus on the content of their writing.

Recommendations
As a result of the investigation carried out in this research project the following recommendations are made:

· The process approach to writing should be adopted as a whole-school approach and not left to the individual teacher because writing is a complex activity which needs time to develop.

· Funding should be available to schools in order to finance visits from authors and poets because poetry-readings and writing work-shops by authors are highly motivating experiences for young writers.

· Further training is needed for teachers in the use of ICT. A national survey in Great Britain revealed only fourteen per cent of experienced teachers perceived themselves as competent in technology (see Loveless, 1995, p. 2). The situation in Irish primary schools appears to be comparable.

Concluding Comment
This paper does not maintain that the introduction of computers into Irish classrooms is a panacea for all ills. Nevertheless, this author argues that computers offer tremendous potential for the implementation of the writing process in our classrooms. Teachers must take up the challenge and nurture children’s writing process through the effective use of this powerful tool. The word processor, if used properly, can be a tool, a resource, and a catalyst for thought (Loveless, 1995, p. 144).

Bibliography

Bruner, J. (1986) in Scrimshaw, P. (1993) Language, Classrooms and Computers. London and New York: Routledge.

Calkins, L. (1986) The Art of Teaching Writing, Portsmouth: Heinemann.

Cochran-Smith, M. (1991) Word processing and Writing in Elementary Classrooms: A Critical Review of Related Literature, Review of Educational Research, Vol. 61, pp. 102-109.

Crook, C. (1994) Computers and The Collaborative Experience of Learning, London: Routledge.

Czerniewska. P. (1985) The National Writing Project: Reflecting on Experience, Oideas, Vol. 34, pp. 46-47.

Czerniewska, P. (1992) Learning about Writing. The Early Years, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

Gallini, J. and Helman, H. (1993) Collaborative Learning in Virtually Expanded Classrooms, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, Georgia.

Graves, D. (1983) Writing: Teachers and Children at Work, Portsmouth: Heinemann.

Healy-Eames, F. (1999) The Teaching of Writing in Irish Primary Schools: Instruction, Curriculum and Assessment. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, National University of Ireland, Galway.

Loveless, A. (1995) The Role of I.T., London: Cassell.

McFarlane, A. (ed.) (1997) Information Technology and Authentic Learning, London: Routledge.

Murray, D.M. (ed.) (1990) Shoptalk: Learning to Write with Writers, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

NCCA - National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, (1999) English Language Teacher Guidelines,Dublin: Stationary Office.

Underwood, J. and Underwood, G. (1990) Computers and Learning: Helping children acquire thinking skills, Oxford: Blackwell.