CESI Conference January 2002 St.Patrick's College

Narrative Inquiry into Conceptual Change Learning in Primary Science through the use of a Multimedia program in a Constructivist Environment

This narrative inquiry into conceptual change learning in primary science is a qualitative study, using an ethnographic framework. The research was conducted over a six-month time frame, with a Fifth Class in a primary school. The particular experience that rooted the inquiry was a novel multimedia program, designed by the researcher and situated in a constructivist environment. The topic of exploration was Electricity.

Data collection and analysis were grounded in three Strands of Inquiry: Science in Study, Science in Action and Science in Design, thus permitting a tri-foci perspective. The inquiry was informed by both content-free and content-specific software. The over-riding endeavour of the researcher was to ascertain if the pupils’ pre-conceptual ideas on Electricity could be modified, towards a more scientific understanding of the topic. The inquiry recorded the impact of multimedia on that cognitive development, from which a schema of four themes emerged.

Data (observational, quotive, representational) established that the use of multimedia as a tool to enhance conceptual understanding in science is an effective one. Findings pointed to improved cognitive and social development as a result of group work, peer tutoring and situated learning. A crucial sub-theme that pervaded the data was that of the benefit of multimedia authoring whilst using content-free software (PowerPoint). In sharp counterpoint, content-specific software left a caveat in the learning environment. The research outlines the role of images, the multisensory nature of multimedia, design, authoring and presentation of a multimedia artefact and the emergent teacher roles arising from a constructivist multimedia teaching paradigm.

In essence, the findings of this research reinforce the constructivist nature of using such methodologies and the intrinsic educational value of this approach. They consolidate the present literature, which is highlighting the use of multimedia as a tool to learn with, rather than from.

Introduction
This paper aims to present a brief description of this study, with particular emphases on the findings, which the data yielded.

Rationale and Background
A rich corpus of literature is testament to the various benefits derived from the use of the computer in the classroom: refinement of skills (Alessi and Trollip, 1985), improvement on student achievement, student attentiveness (Fraser, 1994), presentation of material (Geisert and Futrell, 1990), collaborative work (Hamm and Adams, 1992), motivation (Johnson, Cox and Watson, 1994). The PALM (1990) research findings indicated enhancement of pupils’ learning when computers coalesce with the more traditional as cognitive tools. Cognitive tools are those that support learning at different levels, elementary or higher level functions in relation to the degree of abstraction or decontextualisation of learning. One such cognitive tool is that of multimedia.

Rationale for using Multimedia
Multimedia presents a paradigm shift towards a more creative and constructivist focus in the way technology is used in education. Multimedia is a generic term to describe a way of presenting material, often learning material, which involves a mix of media: speech or sound, drawings or diagrams, animated drawings or diagrams, images and the printed word, i.e. text. Collins, Hammond and Wellington (1997) state clearly in their findings that multimedia can widen learners’ experiences by giving them access to activities which would be impossible or time consuming to organise in other ways. It can also provide opportunities for learners to take more control over their learning and accept more responsibility.

The challenge in education is to provide students with skills that will enable them to read and understand customary written texts, as well as interpret mass media and computers. The student’s information skills will be increasingly valued in the future. Multimedia is one such source. This is an essential part of the learning process now and in the future.

Boyle (1997: 77) writes that ‘the multimedia artefact, often a tool rather than a complete system, becomes an enabling component within the wider context of teacher and learner’, while Von Glaserfield (1989) recognises that educational success for pupils is achieved through a facilitating and enabling relationship, thereby, enhancing the student’s skills and developing self-confidence, initiative and resourcefulness.

However, more recently, Olson (2000) exhorts teachers to look critically at this “Trojan horse” in our midst.

Science and Multimedia
The Primary School Curriculum, published 9th September 1999 (Department of Education and Science, 1999) finally delegated to science a worthy place in the subject curricula, as advised by the Government White Paper on Education (Charting Our Education Future, 1995). Research to date has shown a number of important findings from the use of multimedia technology (Beichner Study, 1994; ImpacT, 1993; SLANT, 1994). The Beichner Study examined the cognitive and effective impact of multimedia tasks on a group of students learning science. The recorded impact of their involvement was considerable. However, there is a paucity in the research here in Ireland with regard to Primary Science and Technology.

What the Literature says
The status of primary science in Ireland has had a chequered history. The importance of the subject has swung like a pendulum of a clock between compulsory and optional status throughout the various curricula implemented since the beginning of the last century. The arrival of the Primary School Curriculum (1999) in granting primary science its due importance in the SESE subject category is to be applauded, since science has been deemed to be the ‘greatest intellectual and cultural achievement of modern man’ (Bullock, 1980: 2).

Conceptual Change Learning
CCL is particularly concerned with the development of scientifically accurate understandings. According to conceptual change theory, in order for many students to believe or accept scientific theories, a process of knowledge restructuring must occur. Underlying knowledge structures must be elicited and addressed in the learning process for conceptual change to evolve. The students’ ideas must provide the framework for instruction.

To address this realistic cognitive situation, CCL therefore is the theory particularly concerned with the development of scientifically accurate understanding.

Constructivism and Primary Science
Carr et al. (cited in Fenshaw, Gunstone and White, 1994) refer to the traditional method of teaching science as the transmissive one. This method avoided discussion (since learners lacked knowledge worthy of consideration) and interaction, which might have revealed teachers’ uncertain knowledge and so, alter the power relationships in the classroom. Arguments for the use of constructivism in science come from:

· Our perception of the world is seen to be subjective

· The affective dimension in learning. How we feel about the ideas being presented in our learning experiences affects our learning about them (Claxton, 1991).

To learn science from a constructivist philosophy implies direct experience with science as a process of knowledge generation in which prior knowledge is elaborated and changed on the basis of fresh meanings negotiated with peers and teachers.

Watts (1991) outlines a structure of work that approaches some of the central principles of constructivism in science teaching. In general it can be seen to:

· Provide opportunities to explore and elaborate pupils’ understandings of science

· Promote active learning, and “actionable” learning

· Engender shared teamwork and collaborative group activity

· Work through the use of open-ended investigations, where there are few right answers

· Make science relevant, enjoyable, fruitful, plausible and highly motivational.

However, constructivism is not seen without limitations. Both Matthews (1993, 1995) and Driver at al. (1994: 7) have expressed cautions about adopting too literal an interpretation of constructivist principles stating that; ‘learners need to be given access not only to physical experiences but also to the concepts and models of conventional science’.

Constructivism and Multimedia
Much of the current literature written on this topic concentrates how educators can use technologies, such as multimedia to support constructive learning. In the past, technology has been largely used in education to learn from. Technology programs were developed with the belief that they could convey information more effectively than teachers. But constructivists believe that you cannot convey understanding. Learners can only construct that. Therefore, technologies, like multimedia, are more effectively used as tools to construct knowledge with. Technology is a tool to think and learn with.

Students-as-producers-of-technologies (as in this research) engage in much more meaningful learning than students-as-receivers-from-instructional-technologies. With no technology is this belief more obvious than with multimedia. The basic tenet of students constructing and presenting their own material from experiential situations gives them a deeper understanding of the content of their study (Jonassen et al., 1996; Ruokamo-Sari and Pohjolainen, 1997).

The goal of any student-as-multimedia designer approach (authoring) is to promote student learning by requiring students to assemble information, transform and translate the information, evaluate the knowledge, revise the knowledge and draw conclusions. These goals would demonstrate an understanding by creating a comprehensive and multimedia artefact. Researchers who have used a students-as-designers multimedia approach share common findings (Lehrer, 1993; Liu and Routledge, 1996; Nicaise and Crane, 1999).

· Students seem to enjoy the flexibility of approaching subject matter in different ways

· Students express enjoyment with being able to work in a collaborative setting, rather than individually

· They become intrigued with expressing their thoughts, ideas and conclusions using visual, written, and aural mediums. This compels, as well as motivates the students to use the application’s capabilities to creatively represent what they know or what they have learned

· It encourages students to assume a greater responsibility for learning.

These researchers are indicating that a move toward a constructivist methodology could be greatly empowered through the use of multimedia, especially in the student-as-designer approach in school. This education with technology leads to meaningful learning. When given the opportunity, students of all ages readily experiment with technologies, articulate their beliefs, and construct, co-construct, and criticize each other’s ideas. When learners are allowed to assume ownership of the product, they are diligent and persevering builders of knowledge.

Multimedia and Science
Why use multimedia in the classroom? I found a very apt reply in Hyperlearning (Wilhelm and Friedmann, 1996: 3), where the authors state that multimedia ‘can help by making how to learn and what is learned visible and accountable’. By making learning visible, multimedia can assist student performances in many learning competencies, such as questioning, finding and developing information, analyzing and organizing data, revising and representing what is learned, and using that new knowledge to take action in the world. This statement justifies its use, particularly since these are the skills being urged in the Primary School Curriculum (Science, Teacher Guidelines: 16).

Science multimedia software demonstrates how it can support the different learning styles of learners. It provides fixed paths through a multimedia learning experience each corresponding to and supporting different styles of learning. A more flexible solution is that it provides multiple paths of navigation through the instructional materials to support the learner in their choice of path – whether to obtain information resources, sample problems or practice opportunities (Laurillard, 1993).

The use of multimedia in science teaching and learning can extend access to learners in at least three ways:

· By letting them see processes which may be too fast, too slow or too dangerous to observe “live”, in real time

· By helping to explain and illustrate some of the difficult concepts in science

· By allowing them to “do” experiments that would otherwise be impossible (Collins, Hammond and Wellington, 1997: 72).

Research to date has shown a number of important findings from the use of multimedia in primary science. The Beichner Study (1994) reported a project in which junior high school students developed multimedia displays to teach science to themselves and others. It examined the cognitive and affective impact of multimedia tasks on these pupils. The recorded impact of their involvement in the initiative was considerable:

1. From the outset the pupils were motivated and demonstrated great concern for accuracy in their displays.

2. Pupils gained independence in their tasks and quickly assumed responsibility for content and editing decisions.

3. Pupils were competent in accessing wide ranges of material and sources to find content they needed.

4. Pupils displayed enjoyment and tremendous enthusiasm for the project.

Recent progress in technology, which makes it more accessible and methodologically sound, tips the balance in favour of using multimedia as a cognitive tool in the construction of knowledge. Multimedia has all the attributes of making this knowledge more meaningful. However, in science teaching, exclusive use or overuse of multimedia software could lead to a distorted view of science. Indeed, there are opinions pointing to the lack of good evidence that learning can benefit significantly from technology.

Research Methods
Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2000: 9) point to the failure of positivistic research in its relevance to the classroom: ‘Where positivism is less successful is in its application to the study of human behaviour…This point is nowhere more apparent than in the contexts of classroom and school’. With this view in mind, the researcher adopted a qualitative model of research using an ethnographic framework, to allow the focus of the quality of lived experiences of the classroom inform the research. Dewey (1958: 293) crystallized the concept when he stated:

‘All direct experience is qualitative and qualities are what makes life experience directly precious’.

The Role of the Ethnographer
I began this study with the challenge of ‘making the familiar classroom strange’ (Goswami and Stillman, 1987: 1). My role as teacher/researcher, in its meagre beginnings grew to be that of ‘gatherer of information, persistent questioner’ (Pelto et al., 1973: 182). However, the pupils’ questions become my questions and their answers are questioned in this research.

The conceptual lens of inquiry to tease these questions is that of ethnography. The process of ethnography is original fieldwork and its rationale grew from modern anthropologists’ encounters with and attempts to understand others. Fieldwork involves the prolonged intensive and direct involvement of the researcher in the lives and activities of the group in question (Hitchcock and Hughes, 1995).

Ethnographic methods rely substantially on “participant observation” and its utilization of a wide range of data sources. However, the oxymoron “participant observation” also implies simultaneously emotional involvement and objective detachment. Ethnographers attempt to be both engaged participants and coolly dispassionate observers of the lives of others (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983). ‘The participant side of participant-observation affords nearness, while the observer side lends farness’ (Browne, 1985: 55). This twofold understanding of reflexivity allowed me perform the necessary functions: the collection of rich, qualitative data, while simultaneously mediating in the interpersonal contexts of the classroom to see, read and interpret what lay beneath the layers of data.

Strands of Inquiry
Data collection and analysis was grounded in three strands of inquiry. Strand One: Science in Study, introduced the pupils to Electricity through the use of an instructional multimedia program designed by the researcher, Strand Two: Science in Action, progressed the pupils to groupwork using content-specific software, Strand Three: Science in Design, developed into the design and presentation in multimedia artefact by the pupils themselves using content-free software (PowerPoint), and becoming “students-as-authors”. These three strands gleaned a rich harvest of data, guaranteed representation and validity and rooted the inquiry in a tri-foci framework.

At the outset, a micro pre-research was initiated in order to establish the pre-conceptual understanding, or “alternative frameworks” (Driver, 1991) the pupils held on the topic of Electricity. Throughout the research, themes emerged from the salient, pervasive findings. At the culmination, total insight was reached on the conceptual changes and related issues by analysis of the data collected – observational data, KWL charts, concept maps, diaries, journals, interviews and quotive data.

Findings of the Research
This research gleaned findings from which four main themes emerged. For the purpose of elucidation, these are represented in Figure 1. Since this was a narrative inquiry, the findings are narrated as stories.

These were narrated as stories.

· The Science Story narrated the impact of a multimedia program on the development of the scientific conceptual understanding in the topic Electricity.

· The Pupil Story narrated the extent to which the pupil, the protagonist in the story, is affected both from an individual and group perspective, in a multimedia constructivist environment.

· The Multimedia Story narrated the role of multimedia, as a cognitive tool to learn with rather than from, to assist in the pedagogical process of conceptual change.

· The Teacher Story narrated the extent to which the images of the teacher are an enduring and recurring factor penetrating all classroom behaviour.

For further elucidation, conclusions and insight gained are divided into the four thematic strata, which emerged from the data gleaned over the research. Of necessity, and realistically, these are interrelated and woven inextricably in the crosscurrents of implications and recommendations for the future.

Conclusions and Insight into the Science Story
The use of multimedia as a tool to enhance conceptual understanding in the topic of electricity appears to be an effective one. The evidence of the data, reinforced by triangulation, indicated impressive development in conceptual understanding of circuits and the wider cognitive areas. At the outset the children held “alternative frameworks”. The pupils’ notions of electricity were “life-world” ones, with customised language grounded in experiences. At the culmination of the research, they had succeeded in replacing these with the scientific conceptual models. The findings document both in fieldnotes and in representational data the pupils’ complete rejection of their original model of an electrical circuit, in favour of the scientific one. Thus, it can be concluded that it is possible to modify children’s pre-conceptual ideas on Electricity towards a more “scientific” understanding of the topic. These findings are in contrast to those of Ausubel (1968) who contends that the early concepts of children are extremely tenacious and resistant to change. It is both pertinent and logical here to question, which of the factor/factors (outlined in Discussion of Data) caused the cognitive insight gained by the pupils, and where in the Research (Strand 1, Strand 2, Strand 3) the conceptual change occurred? However, it is representative of the CCL model as forwarded by Scott, Asoko and Driver (1991). This model builds on the strategy of cognitive conflict and the resolution of conflicting perspectives.

In Strand One, the instructional presentation in multimedia, the pupils were introduced to a new vocabulary of scientific language. These new scientific terms and notations were reinforced in Strand Two, in groupwork using software. Yet, the pupils reverted to using their own customised, everyday language. This bears out Kelly’s (1969) theory on language where the intended meaning of a lesson is not automatically transferred to the mind of the pupil, due to the language used and the context it is used in. This research suggested pupils frequently use analogies/similes to explain concepts (analogy of a drawbridge, wheel of a bicycle). By using the analogy of the bicycle wheel, the concept of circuits was maintained, and elaborated to incorporate the pupils’ experiences and interests.

The documented data established the existence of mismatches between the ideas of the pupils and those of the teacher. From the teacher’s point of view, the scientific activity is clear. From the perspective of the pupil, what to do is not understood or the skills needed are not recognised. This echoes the findings of Tasker and Lambert (1981), which illustrate the frequencies of discrepancies between teacher intentions and pupil responses.

The impact of the constructivist paradigm was best evidenced in Strand Three, where the pupils were immersed in the design and presentation of a multimedia artefact. The pupils were involved in constructive and active learning. They were afforded an opportunity to explore and elaborate their understandings in Electricity, and to test their ideas. However, the observational data indicated some inherent dangers in pupils’ construction of ideas. This correlates with the theories of Driver et al. (1994) and Matthews (1993, 1995) who are critical of the constructivist approach, which implies that students who construct their own understanding of the world are building scientific understanding. They may not be! The pupils needed access both to scientific concepts and models of Electricity, and teacher intervention. Constructivists are anxious to avoid these practices.

Conclusions and Insight into the Pupil Story
The research recorded various findings with regard to the pupils and the classroom dynamics. These findings suggest that pupil motivation increases when they have positive feelings on their topic of study. The majority of pupils displayed a visible increase in motivation towards “doing science” on the computer. Pintrich et al’s (1993) theory on the affective or the emotional aspect of science consolidates this finding. The pupils’ conceptual learning is influenced by their motivational beliefs about themselves and how they feel about their new knowledge.

Discussion, involvement, collaboration and group dynamics were all factors leading to positive social interaction. This also influenced and led to valuable cognitive development. This finding correlates with researchers, Hamm and Adams (1992), and Light (1983: 48), who states that conditions have to be such that pupils, ‘engage both with the task and with one another in the course of their learning’.

The impact of peer tutoring was evidenced in accelerated collaborative thinking and learning. However, observational data evidenced the potential for resentment and antagonism. The researcher suggested intervention by the teacher, as a requirement to avoid socio-cognitive conflict and in maintaining pre-determined rules.

Findings concluded that pupils were competent, assured and assertive when the learning was situated or grounded in a context that was relevant to their own lives. This contextualised learning was clearly in evidence when the pupils visited Ardnacrusha and were affirmed in their thinking processes and questioning. This finding is in consonance with that of Collins (1998).

Conclusions and Insight into the Multimedia Story
The experience of learning with multimedia was a very positive one. Observational and quotive data (: 106, 111) highlighted the incidence of the enjoyment of pupils in the integration of learning with technology. This re-iterates the findings of the ImpactT Research, which found that a “fun” element in learning leads to positive engagement. The data also suggested that the pupils were empowered as they assumed control of their learning. In this case, the computer played the role of the enabling tool, as it represented a tool to learn with, rather than from.

The use of images, as a medium for attention grabbing and interest captivation did entice the pupils to learn, albeit in a covert, subconscious manner. But, a total reliance on multimedia to teach science raised doubts. Present literature is raising similar questions, although answers are inconclusive (Collins, Hammond and Wellington, 1997). In sharp counterpoint, children with Special Needs appear to perform best in a multisensory environment, since they have a visual learning style. This may be the sole medium of learning suitable to their needs in the classroom context. This reinforces the theory of Kress and Van Leeuwen (1996) who contend that children remember more and are more active when they experience both pictures and words together.

The crucial question of the existence of high quality software appeared to penetrate Strands One and Two of the inquiry. In Strand One, the use of an instructional presentation designed by the researcher, the pupils appeared to display satisfaction, and consequently, achieved a general degree of conceptual understanding. It was suitable to the pupils’ ability, their prior knowledge, and allowed easy navigation for the pupils to progress. The use of pre-designed or content- specific software in Strand Two did not appear to be quite as satisfactory, relevant or productive for the pupils. This suggests that the elements of educational software should focus on sound cognitive developments for pupils.

In Strand Three, where the pupils were authors of a multimedia artefact, an opportunity was provided for valuable cognitive experiences – skills in exploring, discussing, planning, questioning, designing, presenting. It appears that content-free software (i.e. PowerPoint) provides optimum opportunities to pupils to consolidate knowledge in an alternative medium and to use many valuable skills. Observational and quotive data correlate with the findings of researchers (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 1996; Lehrer, 1993; Liu and Routledge, 1996; Nicaise and Crane, 1999) into the student-as-designer approach in multimedia. These are: enjoyment of pupils, students assuming responsibility for and ownership of learning, the multimedia and multisensorial element of learning, and the flexibility the approach lends to learning. The finished artefact (Appendix A) is evidence of these. The findings totally refute those of Plowman (1999) who says that multimedia may rob the pupils of all imagination. In this case, the pupils were afforded ample opportunity to design their work creatively.

Conclusions and Insight into the Teacher Story
The images of the teacher as motivator, guide and innovator are keys to engaging with primary science. The teacher as motivator embraces the challenge of placing the emphasis on the “right” things for the pupil. This is achieved through metacognition, encouragement, discernment of foci of interest, and opening up areas for reflection. The teacher as guide steers pupils into logical thinking, challenges the reluctance or incapabilities of pupils and is the perpetual mediator in constructive processes. The teacher as innovator is informed by imaginative and realistic strategies to modify and construct conceptual thinking.

Recommendations
Some key recommendation arise from this research and its conclusions:

· In the light of the evidence obtained in this pre-research, the findings recommend that the teacher firstly establishes the pupils’ alternative frameworks, by way of elicitation, concept mapping etc., prior to building new conceptual understanding.

· It is realistic to suggest that scientific learning and skills be contextualised or “situated”, so that they reflect how the knowledge will be useful in real life.

· Groupwork is a powerful methodological strategy and should be employed both for social and cognitive development. Intervention by the teacher is required to avoid socio-cognitive conflict and in maintaining pre-determined group rules.

· As demonstrated in the findings, the potential of content-free software must be recognised. Presently, it appears the emphasis is on easy-to-use child friendly software. But, the skills of exploring, planning, design and presentation are those most valuable, leading to life long learning, as prescribed in the Primary School Curriculum, Introduction (1999: 31). Content-free or open framework software is a most powerful tool for the merging of this amalgam of skills, where the pupils become “students-as-authors”. It is a tool to learn with, rather than from.

· The use of multimedia is recommended as an approach to reinforcement of scientific knowledge. As representational data showed, imagination and creativity are not decreased or quenched.

· The teacher as motivator must systematically ground science teaching in the principles and practices of the “scientific method” of observing, asking questions, predicting, hypothesising, interpreting, recording, and communicating results.

· The teacher as guide must focus on a flexible and developmental progression, which allows for an invariant sequence of curriculum strands and themes.